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UPPCS Mains
2026 Edition
General Studies Paper III
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Science and Technology

English Medium
7
Chapters
34
Topics
101
Figures & Maps
24
Tables
What's Inside
  1. 01S&T Policy, Institutions and Achievements of Indians
  2. 02Technology Transfer, Innovation and National Security
  3. 03ICT: Digital India, Computing and Communication Technologies
  4. 04Artificial Intelligence, Digital Rights and Intellectual Property Rights
  5. 05Space Technology
  6. 06Biotechnology, Microbiology, Health Technology and Nanotechnology
  7. 07Energy Technologies: Nuclear, Hydrogen, Clean Fuels and Storage
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Science and Technology
UPPCS Mains · Smart Notes

Contents

Science and Technology · General Studies Paper III
  1. 01S&T Policy, Institutions and Achievements of Indians5 topics
    1. 1.1India's S&T Policy and Institutions: From the Scientific Policy Resolution to STIP 2020, ANRF and R&D Funding
    2. 1.2TIFAC and the Technology Vision Documents 2020 and 2035
    3. 1.3S&T in Everyday Life and Rural Development
    4. 1.4Achievements of Indians in S&T: Pioneers, Women Scientists and Nobel Laureates
    5. 1.5Indian Knowledge Systems and Modern Science: Traditional Aeronautics and Traditional Medicine
  2. 02Technology Transfer, Innovation and National Security5 topics
    1. 2.1Technology Transfer and Indigenisation: Meaning, Routes and Dissemination
    2. 2.2Innovation Ecosystem and Startups: Startup India, Atal Innovation Mission and the Global Innovation Index
    3. 2.3S&T and National Power: Role in National Security
    4. 2.4Dual-Use and Critical Technologies: Export Controls, Research Security and Technology Partnerships
    5. 2.5Defence Technologies: Missiles, Air Defence and Military Platforms
  3. 03ICT: Digital India, Computing and Communication Technologies5 topics
    1. 3.1Digital India and Digital Public Infrastructure
    2. 3.2Cloud Computing, Data Centres and Data Localisation
    3. 3.3Semiconductors and Quantum Technology: India Semiconductor Mission and National Quantum Mission
    4. 3.4Telecom and Connectivity: 5G, 6G and Satellite Internet
    5. 3.5Fourth Industrial Revolution Technologies: IoT, Blockchain, 3D Printing, Extended Reality and Facial Recognition
  4. 04Artificial Intelligence, Digital Rights and Intellectual Property Rights4 topics
    1. 4.1Artificial Intelligence: Technology, National Strategy and the IndiaAI Mission
    2. 4.2AI Applications: Civil and Military Uses, Generative AI and Deepfakes
    3. 4.3Digital Rights, Privacy and Data Protection: Puttaswamy, the DPDP Act 2023 and the IT Rules
    4. 4.4Intellectual Property Rights: Framework, Issues and Enforcement
  5. 05Space Technology5 topics
    1. 5.1Indian Space Programme: Space Policy 2023, Institutions and Launch Vehicles
    2. 5.2India's Space Missions: Chandrayaan-3, Aditya-L1, Gaganyaan and Beyond
    3. 5.3Satellites and Space Applications: Communication, Earth Observation and Navigation
    4. 5.4Space Economy, Space Security and Space Debris
    5. 5.5Astronomical Phenomena: Eclipses and the Blood Moon
  6. 06Biotechnology, Microbiology, Health Technology and Nanotechnology6 topics
    1. 6.1Biotechnology: Applications, the BioE3 Policy and India's Achievements
    2. 6.2Genomics, Gene Editing and Cell Therapy: Genome India, CRISPR, CAR-T and Synthetic Biology
    3. 6.3Agricultural Biotechnology: GM Crops and Genome-Edited Crops
    4. 6.4Microbiology, Vaccines and One Health: AMR and Pandemic Preparedness
    5. 6.5Health Technology: Digital Health, Telemedicine and Brain–Computer Interfaces
    6. 6.6Nanotechnology: Science, Applications and the Nano Mission
  7. 07Energy Technologies: Nuclear, Hydrogen, Clean Fuels and Storage4 topics
    1. 7.1Nuclear Energy Technology: Three-Stage Programme, Small Modular Reactors and Safety
    2. 7.2Green Hydrogen: Production, Fuel Cells and the National Green Hydrogen Mission
    3. 7.3Clean Fuels: A-CNG, Compressed Biogas and Biofuels
    4. 7.4Energy Storage, Smart Grids and Critical Minerals
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Science and TechnologyChapter 01 · Topic 1
Chapter 01

S&T Policy, Institutions and Achievements of Indians

Science and Technology · 5 topics
Topic 1

India's S&T Policy and Institutions: From the Scientific Policy Resolution to STIP 2020, ANRF and R&D Funding

Chapter Overview

This chapter covers how India plans and funds science, the body that looks ahead at technology, what science does in daily and rural life, and the people and knowledge traditions behind it. Its central problem is the gap between ambition and spending: India's gross expenditure on R&D was 0.84% of GDP in 2023-24 (DST, 2026), and the ANRF and the RDI Scheme (2025) are meant to pull in private money.

Topic 1 traces S&T policy from the Scientific Policy Resolution of 1958 to the draft STIP 2020 and the institutions that fund research. Topic 2 covers TIFAC and its Technology Vision documents, Topic 3 shows how S&T reaches homes and villages, Topic 4 the scientists whose work built these systems, and Topic 5 how traditional knowledge is tested against modern science.

Topic Flow
  1. 1S&T Policy and Institutions
  2. looks ahead through
  3. 2TIFAC and the Technology Visions
  4. is delivered in
  5. 3S&T in Everyday Life and Rural Development
  6. was built by
  7. 4Achievements of Indians in S&T
  8. draws also on
  9. 5Indian Knowledge Systems and Modern Science

A national S&T policy is the government's statement of where science, technology and innovation should head and how money, people and institutions will be lined up behind that goal. In July 2025 the Union Cabinet approved the RDI Scheme, a ₹1 lakh crore corpus for private-sector research in strategic and sunrise areas (PM India, 2025).

From the Scientific Policy Resolution to the Draft STIP

  1. Scientific Policy Resolution, 1958: India's first science policy made it a duty of the state to cultivate and support science "in all its aspects"; e.g. adopted under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.
  2. Later policies: the 1983 statement stressed technological self-reliance, the 2003 policy social benefit and women in science, and the 2013 policy added innovation; e.g. Technology Policy Statement of 1983; STI Policy of 2013.
  3. Draft STIP 2020: the fifth national S&T policy, drafted through a bottom-up consultation led by the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser and DST; e.g. drafted in 2020 and put up for public consultation in 2021 (DST, 2021).
  4. Aim of STIP: to reshape the STI ecosystem after COVID-19 around self-reliance (Atmanirbhar Bharat) and global competitiveness; e.g. aims to place India among the top three scientific superpowers in the decade ahead (DST, 2021).
India's S&T policy ladder, from the Scientific Policy Resolution to the RDI Scheme
Fig. 1.1 India's S&T policy ladder, from the Scientific Policy Resolution to the RDI Scheme

Key Provisions of the Draft STIP 2020

  1. Doubling targets: double full-time-equivalent (FTE) researchers, gross R&D spending and the private share of that spending every five years; e.g. FTE counts researchers by the share of their time spent on R&D.
  2. Open science: make publicly funded research and scholarly journals freely available to every researcher and student; e.g. One Nation One Subscription: 13,000+ journals of 30+ publishers for 6,500+ government institutions (ONOS, 2026).
  3. STI Development Bank: a dedicated bank to direct long-term money into strategic areas, start-ups, technology diffusion and licensing; e.g. patient capital, that is finance willing to wait years for a return.
  4. STI Observatory and INDSTA: a National STI Observatory as the central store of all STI data and an INDSTA portal for outputs of publicly funded research; e.g. evidence base for policy and funding decisions (DST, 2020).
  5. Strategic technologies: a Strategic Technology Board links strategic departments, and mission-mode funding backs priority technologies; e.g. National Quantum Mission, 2023: ₹6,003.65 crore (PIB, 2025); IndiaAI Mission, 2024: ₹10,371.92 crore (PIB, 2024).
  6. Equity, inclusion and diaspora: an India-centric Equity and Inclusion charter, women on selection committees in proportion and a portal to draw diaspora scientists back; e.g. a science communication framework is also proposed (DST, 2021).
Key pillars of the draft Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2020
Fig. 1.2 Key pillars of the draft Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2020

Institutions and R&D Funding: How the System Performs

  1. Gross expenditure on R&D (GERD): total R&D spending by government, business, universities and non-profits, shown as a share of GDP; e.g. ₹2,44,767.81 crore, 0.84% of GDP in 2023-24 (DST, 2026).
  2. Who funds R&D: private industry now carries the largest share of GERD, while central government institutions still account for nearly a third; e.g. private sector industry 45.2%, central sector institutions 30.9%, higher education 12.6% in 2023-24 (DST, 2026).
  3. Research workforce: India has a large research workforce in absolute numbers but a thin one relative to its population; e.g. 5.07 lakh FTE researchers; 354 per million population in 2023-24 (DST, 2026).
  4. Research output: publications and patent filings have risen fast even with modest spending, a sign of growing research efficiency; e.g. India 3rd in scientific publications (2022) after China and the USA; Indian Patent Office 6th among the top ten (DST, 2026).
  5. ANRF: the Anusandhan National Research Foundation, set up under the ANRF Act, 2023, funds research in universities and labs and is meant to draw private money; e.g. ₹50,000 crore over 2023-28: ₹14,000 crore from Government, ₹36,000 crore (about 80%) from non-government sources (DST, 2023).
Table 1.1 Founding years of DST, CSIR and DSIR are standard; all six sit under the Ministry of Science and Technology or its departments.
Body or schemeYear and basisRole
Department of Science and Technology (DST)1971policy department for civilian S&T; funds research; nodal for Vigyan Dhara and the RDI Scheme
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)194237 laboratories in five clusters: biological 11, chemical 9, engineering 10, information 2, physical 5 (CSIR, 2026)
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR)1985recognises in-house R&D units of firms; CRTDH hubs give MSMEs research access; its NRDC transfers public technologies to industry
Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF)ANRF Act, 2023apex research funder, comparable to the US National Science Foundation; Prime Minister heads its Board, the Principal Scientific Adviser its Executive Council; subsumed SERB, set up by an Act of 2008
Vigyan Dhara2024, DST scheme₹10,579.84 crore for 2021-22 to 2025-26; merges three umbrella schemes: capacity building (INSPIRE scholarships), R&D, and innovation and deployment (PIB, 2024)
RDI Scheme2025₹1 lakh crore corpus for private R&D in strategic and sunrise areas, run through a Special Purpose Fund in ANRF (PM India, 2025)
Shares of gross expenditure on R&D by sector, 2023-24
Fig. 1.3 Shares of gross expenditure on R&D by sector, 2023-24

Concerns in India's Research System

Policy ambition has grown faster than spending and capacity, so the debate is whether new bodies will change research outcomes or only rename old ones.

  1. Draft status: STIP was released only as a draft for consultation, and a draft policy's doubling targets bind no ministry or budget; e.g. draft put up for public consultation in 2021 (DST, 2021).
  2. Low spending: GERD below 1% of GDP lags far behind the 2% India has long sought and the levels of leading R&D nations; e.g. 0.84% of GDP in 2023-24 (DST, 2026); Israel and South Korea spend several times that share.
  3. Weak private push: company R&D is concentrated in pharma and IT, while deep tech, materials and defence research get little private money; e.g. weighted tax deduction for in-house R&D (Income Tax Act, s 35(2AB)) phased down by 2020-21.
  4. Thin base and brain drain: state universities lack labs to absorb large grants, and many top researchers leave for better-funded systems abroad; e.g. critics fear ANRF could become a renamed SERB without a change in evaluation culture.

Way Forward for Research and Innovation

  1. Adopt and measure: adopt the final STI policy with yearly targets and publish outcomes through the proposed National STI Observatory; e.g. a public dashboard of outlay against research output.
  2. Crowd in private R&D: use the RDI Scheme to give firms long-term, low-cost money for research in sunrise areas, and restore a higher weighted tax deduction for in-house R&D; e.g. a Special Purpose Fund in ANRF passes money to fund managers for low or nil-interest loans, startup equity or a Deep-Tech Fund of Funds (PM India, 2025).
  3. Talent and universities: fund research in state universities and keep young scientists in India through fellowships and mentoring; e.g. PM Research Fellowship: 10,000 fellowships in IITs and IISc over five years (Union Budget, 2025); ANRF's PAIR hub-and-spoke model.
  4. Joined-up funding: align DST, DBT, ICMR, ICAR and MeitY funding through one portal and match State S&T spending with central grants; e.g. Union Budget 2026-27 backs the AI Mission, National Quantum Mission, ANRF and the RDI Fund (Union Budget, 2026).

With a final policy, a working ANRF and private money from the RDI Scheme, India can lift R&D spending towards 2% of GDP and turn research into products.

Based on NCERT, Standard Books references, Keywords from Syllabus and Previous Year question Papers

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Science and TechnologyChapter 01 · Topic 2
Topic 2

TIFAC and the Technology Vision Documents 2020 and 2035

Policy needs a view of the future, and the Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC) supplies it: an autonomous society under DST, set up in 1988 to forecast and assess technology over 10–25-year horizons (TIFAC, 2026). Technologies it has studied, such as semiconductors, now run as funded missions: Semicon 2.0 was approved in July 2026 with ₹1,27,500 crore (PIB, 2026; see Ch 3, Topic 3).

TIFAC: Mandate and Role

  1. Technology forecasting: TIFAC estimates the likely demand for goods and services in each sector and the technologies needed to meet it; e.g. Technology Vision 2020 (1996) and Technology Vision 2035 (2016).
  2. Technology assessment: it prepares technology impact statements on what existing and newly emerging technologies will mean for society; e.g. which technologies India should adopt, develop or buy.
  3. Research priorities: it identifies priority research areas for the country's socio-economic, environmental and security needs and sets directions for future technology development; e.g. sector roadmaps with milestones under Technology Vision 2035.
  4. Technology information: it sets up groups to collect, analyse and share technology information and assesses the state of the art in key sectors; e.g. Patent Facilitation Centre for scientists and small inventors.
TIFAC and India's Technology Vision documents
Fig. 1.4 TIFAC and India's Technology Vision documents

Technology Vision 2020 and 2035: Aim and Prerogatives

  1. Technology Vision 2020: TIFAC's first long-range vision, prepared under A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, set technology goals for India to become a developed nation by 2020; e.g. released in 1996; its ideas were later popularised in the book India 2020.
  2. Technology Vision 2035: a roadmap of what technology should deliver to every Indian by 2035 and how the country can get there; e.g. released by the Prime Minister at the 103rd Indian Science Congress, Mysuru, 2016 (TIFAC, 2026).
  3. Aim of TV-2035: "Technology in the service of India": ensuring the security, enhancing the prosperity and strengthening the identity of every Indian; e.g. aim as stated by DST (DST, 2026).
  4. Prerogatives: twelve entitlements that every Indian should be able to claim from technology by 2035, six individual and six collective; e.g. clean air and potable water; 24x7 energy; transparent and effective governance.
Table 1.2 Every roadmap is also tested against universal access, affordability, sustainability, inclusivity, equity, safety, security and ethics. Source: TIFAC (2016).
Individual prerogatives (6)Collective prerogatives (6)
Clean air and potable waterSafe and speedy mobility
Food and nutritional securityPublic safety and national security
Universal healthcare and public hygieneCultural diversity and vibrancy
24x7 energyTransparent and effective governance
Decent habitatDisaster and climate resilience
Quality education, livelihood and creative opportunitiesEco-friendly conservation of natural resources
The twelve prerogatives of every Indian in Technology Vision 2035, grouped
Fig. 1.5 The twelve prerogatives of every Indian in Technology Vision 2035, grouped

Twelve Technology Sectors of TV-2035

  1. Sector roadmaps: TV-2035 sets technology roadmaps for twelve sectors, running from education and health to materials and ICT; e.g. water, energy, habitat and transportation are among them (TIFAC, 2016).
  2. Grand challenges: it also names ten grand challenges whose solutions would have wide impact across several sectors at once; e.g. grand challenges cut across sectors instead of sitting in one (TIFAC, 2026).
  3. From vision to missions: many later national missions work in TV-2035 sectors, though the document itself carries no budget of its own; e.g. Jal Jeevan Mission (2019) in water; IndiaAI Mission (2024) in ICT.
Table 1.3 The third column shows present work in each sector, not a formal link made by TV-2035.
NoSectorPresent work in the sector
1EducationOne Nation One Subscription for journal access
2Medical sciences and healthcareeSanjeevani telemedicine (2019)
3Food and agriculturegenome-edited rice varieties (2025)
4WaterJal Jeevan Mission (2019)
5EnergyNational Green Hydrogen Mission (2023)
6EnvironmentMission LiFE (2022)
7HabitatSmart Cities Mission (2015)
8TransportationBharatmala road programme (2017)
9InfrastructureBharatNet rural broadband
10ManufacturingIndia Semiconductor Mission (2021)
11MaterialsNational Critical Mineral Mission (2025)
12Information and communication technologyIndiaAI Mission (2024)

IT Technologies Expected by 2020

  1. Ten emerging IT technologies: MeitY's FutureSkills PRIME programme, run with NASSCOM, names the emerging IT technologies in which India needs skills; e.g. AI, IoT, big data, cloud, blockchain, cyber security, RPA, 3D printing, VR, social and mobile (NIELIT, 2026).
  2. Internet of Things (IoT): a network of everyday devices that sense and share data over the internet; MeitY's draft IoT Policy set goals for 2020; e.g. USD 15 billion IoT industry; connected devices from about 200 million to over 2.7 billion by 2020 (MeitY, 2015).
  3. 5G readiness: the next telecom leap after 4G was planned through a high-level forum and an indigenous test bed; e.g. "Making India 5G Ready" report (2018); ₹224 crore 5G testbed built by IITs, IISc, CEWIT and SAMEER (TRAI, 2019).
Table 1.4
TechnologyWhat it does
Artificial intelligence (AI)machines learn from data to reason, recognise images and handle language
Internet of Things (IoT)devices with sensors share data over the internet
Big data analyticsfinds patterns in very large, fast-changing data sets for decisions in health, farming and governance
Cloud computingrents computing power and storage on demand over the internet; base of e-governance and online services
Blockchaina shared, tamper-evident ledger of transactions
Cyber securityprotects systems, networks and data from attack
Robotic process automation (RPA)software bots do repetitive office tasks
3D printingbuilds objects layer by layer from a digital design
Virtual reality (VR)computer-made 3D worlds that a user can enter
Social and mobileapps and platforms used on smartphones
Ten emerging IT technologies named by FutureSkills PRIME (MeitY with NASSCOM)
Fig. 1.6 Ten emerging IT technologies named by FutureSkills PRIME (MeitY with NASSCOM)

Concerns about Vision Documents

Vision documents set direction but carry no law or budget, so critics ask how far TV-2035 actually shapes what ministries spend.

  1. No legal force: TV-2035 is a vision, not a law or a funded plan, so line ministries are free to ignore its roadmaps; e.g. no budget head is tied to the twelve prerogatives.
  2. No public scorecard: critics note that no mid-term review shows how far the 2035 prerogatives have been met; e.g. the halfway point of the vision passed in 2025-26.
  3. TIFAC's limited reach: its small budget and advisory role mean foresight studies are not always taken up by ministries or industry; e.g. far smaller budget than ISRO or DRDO.
  4. Fast-changing technology: a twenty-year vision written in 2016 can miss shifts such as generative AI and quantum technology; e.g. National Quantum Mission (2023) and IndiaAI Mission (2024) came later.

Way Forward for Technology Foresight

  1. Mid-term review: publish a TV-2035 scorecard showing progress on each prerogative and each of the twelve sectors; e.g. data from the National STI Observatory proposed in the draft STIP.
  2. Link money to vision: tie central scheme outlays to the twelve prerogatives so that progress can be measured; e.g. water prerogative tracked against Jal Jeevan Mission outlays.
  3. Update the vision: revise TV-2035 for generative AI, climate adaptation and demographic change; e.g. India AI Governance Guidelines (2025) as an input.
  4. Stronger TIFAC: give TIFAC more funds and a formal role in setting ANRF and mission priorities; e.g. foresight to guide the sunrise areas of the RDI Scheme (2025).
  5. Learn from global practice: leading economies repeat foresight exercises on a fixed cycle and tie the chosen sectors to funded plans; e.g. Japan's S&T Foresight Survey about every five years since 1971; China's Made in China 2025 (2015) named ten priority sectors.

A reviewed TV-2035, tied to budgets and ANRF priorities, can turn TIFAC's foresight into technologies that reach every Indian.

Based on NCERT, Standard Books references, Keywords from Syllabus and Previous Year question Papers

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