NotesCaféInternational RelationsContents
UPPCS Mains
2026 Edition
General Studies Paper II
Smart Notes

International Relations

English Medium
7
Chapters
42
Topics
113
Figures & Maps
15
Tables
What's Inside
  1. 01India’s Foreign Policy: Doctrines, Global Role and the Diaspora
  2. 02India and its Neighbourhood
  3. 03India's Wider Partnerships: Major Powers, Africa and Latin America
  4. 04West Asia, the Gulf and Central Asia
  5. 05Regional and Global Groupings
  6. 06International Institutions
  7. 07Global Issues and Economic Diplomacy
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International Relations
UPPCS Mains · Smart Notes

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International Relations
UPPCS Mains · Smart Notes

Contents

International Relations · General Studies Paper II
  1. 01India’s Foreign Policy: Doctrines, Global Role and the Diaspora5 topics
    1. 1.1Evolution of India’s Foreign Policy: Non-Alignment, Strategic Autonomy and Multi-alignment
    2. 1.2India’s Global Role: Voice of the Global South, Soft Power and the Claim to World Leadership
    3. 1.3Indian Diaspora: Spread, Economic Contribution and Strategic Asset
    4. 1.4Diaspora Policy and Challenges: Welfare, Voting Rights, Extremism and the India–Canada Rift
    5. 1.5Humanitarian Diplomacy: HADR, Evacuation Operations and Refugee Policy
  2. 02India and its Neighbourhood8 topics
    1. 2.1Neighbourhood First Policy: Instruments, Bhutan and Myanmar
    2. 2.2India–Pakistan Relations
    3. 2.3India–China Relations
    4. 2.4India–Nepal Relations
    5. 2.5India–Afghanistan Relations
    6. 2.6India–Bangladesh Relations
    7. 2.7India–Sri Lanka Relations
    8. 2.8India–Maldives Relations
  3. 03India's Wider Partnerships: Major Powers, Africa and Latin America6 topics
    1. 3.1India–USA Relations
    2. 3.2India–Russia Relations and the Russia–Ukraine Conflict
    3. 3.3India and Europe: The EU and the FTA, the UK, France and Germany
    4. 3.4India–Japan and India–Australia: Indo-Pacific Strategic Partners
    5. 3.5India–Africa Relations
    6. 3.6India–Latin America and the Caribbean
  4. 04West Asia, the Gulf and Central Asia5 topics
    1. 4.1India and the Gulf: Link West, Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Red Sea Security
    2. 4.2Energy Security and Energy Diplomacy: West Asia and Diversification
    3. 4.3West Asian Conflicts: US–Iran Tensions, Israel–Palestine and India's Balancing
    4. 4.4Abraham Accords and the New West Asian Architecture: I2U2 and IMEC
    5. 4.5India–Central Asia Relations: Connectivity, Energy and Security
  5. 05Regional and Global Groupings7 topics
    1. 5.1SAARC and BIMSTEC
    2. 5.2Act East Policy and ASEAN
    3. 5.3Quad and the Indo-Pacific: SAGAR, MAHASAGAR and IORA
    4. 5.4G20 and G7: India’s Presidency and Outreach
    5. 5.5SCO, BRICS and IBSA
    6. 5.6Arctic Council and Polar Diplomacy: the Arctic and Antarctica
    7. 5.7Export Control Regimes and Sanctions: NSG, MTCR, Wassenaar and the Australia Group
  6. 06International Institutions5 topics
    1. 6.1United Nations: Peace and Security Record, Peacekeeping and the Pact for the Future
    2. 6.2UN Security Council Reform and India's Claim to Permanent Membership
    3. 6.3International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Court
    4. 6.4World Health Organization
    5. 6.5World Bank, IMF and Development Finance
  7. 07Global Issues and Economic Diplomacy6 topics
    1. 7.1Global Trade Order and India: WTO, US Tariffs and India's FTA Strategy
    2. 7.2Critical Minerals, Semiconductors and Supply-Chain Resilience
    3. 7.3Digital Diplomacy: Digital Public Infrastructure, Cyberspace and AI Governance
    4. 7.4Outer Space Diplomacy
    5. 7.5Climate Diplomacy and the Developing Countries
    6. 7.6Counter-Terrorism Diplomacy: Cross-Border Terrorism, FATF and UN Listings
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International RelationsChapter 01 · Topic 1
Chapter 01

India’s Foreign Policy: Doctrines, Global Role and the Diaspora

International Relations · 5 topics
Topic 1

Evolution of India’s Foreign Policy: Non-Alignment, Strategic Autonomy and Multi-alignment

Chapter Overview

India’s foreign policy rests on a few doctrines, from Non-Alignment through Strategic Autonomy to today’s Multi-alignment, which explain its votes, its partnerships and its claim to speak for the Global South. India holds the BRICS chair in 2026 and hosted its summit in New Delhi (September 2026), months after the Quad foreign ministers met in the same city (May 2026).

Topic 1 traces how these doctrines evolved and sets out the constitutional basis of foreign policy. Topic 2 covers India’s global role through the Global South, soft power and the claim to world leadership. Topics 3 and 4 treat the diaspora, first as an economic and strategic asset and then as a policy task with present challenges. Topic 5 closes with humanitarian diplomacy: disaster relief, evacuations and refugee policy.

Topic Flow
  1. 1Evolution of India’s Foreign Policy
  2. gives room for
  3. 2India’s Global Role
  4. carried abroad by
  5. 3Indian Diaspora
  6. protected through
  7. 4Diaspora Policy and Challenges
  8. extended in crises by
  9. 5Humanitarian Diplomacy

Foreign policy is the set of doctrines by which a sovereign India seeks security, development and standing abroad; it has moved from Non-Alignment to Strategic Autonomy and now Multi-alignment. In January 2026 India concluded a free trade agreement with the European Union, weeks after hosting President Putin for the 23rd India–Russia annual summit (December 2025).

From Non-Alignment to Multi-alignment

  1. Non-Alignment: Nehru kept India out of both Cold War blocs so that it could judge each issue on its merits and take aid from both; e.g. Nehru’s broadcast of 7 September 1946: keep away “from the power politics of groups, aligned against one another”.
  2. NAM today: the Non-Aligned Movement, with India as a founder, lost force after the Cold War, but India still uses it for Global South coordination; e.g. 120 member states; 19th summit at Kampala, January 2024; Uganda chairs NAM for 2024–27.
  3. Strategic Autonomy: after 1991 India replaced bloc-level neutrality with case-by-case choices, keeping the freedom to pick partners without alliance treaties; e.g. Pokhran-II tests (May 1998) and the India–US civil nuclear initiative (July 2005).
  4. Multi-alignment: since 2014 India sits in rival groupings at once and uses small issue-based groups, an approach called minilateralism; e.g. Quad (revived 2017) alongside BRICS, the SCO, BIMSTEC and IORA; I2U2 (2021) with Israel, the UAE and the US.
Table 1.1 Common thread: decisions rest on India’s own interests, never on bloc membership.
PhasePeriodCore ideaMilestones
Non-Alignment1947–1991Stay out of Cold War blocs; judge each issue independentlyPanchsheel (1954), Bandung (1955), NAM at Belgrade (1961), Indo-Soviet Treaty (1971)
Strategic Autonomy1991–2014Case-by-case partnerships after the Soviet collapse and economic reformsLook East (1991), Pokhran-II (1998), India–US nuclear deal (2005–08)
Multi-alignment2014 onwardsJoin many groupings, bind to none; issue-based coalitionsAct East (2014), SCO membership (2017), Quad revived (2017), BRICS chair (2026)
Milestones in the evolution of India’s foreign policy
Fig. 1.1 Milestones in the evolution of India’s foreign policy

Strategic Autonomy in Practice: the Russia–Ukraine Test

  1. Issue-based alignment: India decides each issue on its merits rather than on an ally’s wishes, which is autonomy, not isolation; e.g. India abstained on UN votes condemning Russia, including the General Assembly resolution of 2 March 2022.
  2. Energy choices: India bought discounted Russian crude to shield its consumers from price shocks, despite Western pressure; e.g. Russia supplied 30.2% of India’s crude in FY 2024-25, up from under 2% before the war (see Ch 4, Topic 2).
  3. Defence diversification: India accepted S-400 deliveries despite the US CAATSA law while steadily buying more from France, Israel and the US; e.g. SIPRI (March 2026): Russia’s share of India’s arms imports fell from 70% in 2011–15 to 40% in 2021–25; France 29%.
  4. Parallel partnerships: India deepened technology and defence ties with Washington at the same time, showing that autonomy and partnership can coexist; e.g. iCET (January 2023); ten-year framework for the US–India Major Defence Partnership (October 2025).
India’s partners across rival blocs: NAM, the West and the Quad, Russia and China
Fig. 1.2 India’s partners across rival blocs: NAM, the West and the Quad, Russia and China

Constitutional Basis of Foreign Policy

  1. Sovereign choice: the Preamble’s word Sovereign makes strategic autonomy a constitutional value, while Article 51 sets peaceful goals for its use; e.g. Article 51 asks the State to foster respect for international law and treaty obligations and to encourage arbitration.
  2. Executive treaty-making: the Union executive makes treaties under Article 73; Parliament must legislate only when a treaty touches citizens’ rights or needs domestic law; e.g. Maganbhai Ishwarbhai Patel (1969): demarcating the Kutch boundary needed no amendment, but ceding territory would.
Table 1.2 Foreign affairs lie wholly in List I of the Seventh Schedule; the States have no legislative role in them.
ProvisionWhat it saysUse in foreign policy
Preamble: “Sovereign”India decides its internal and external affairs freelyBasis of strategic autonomy
Article 51 (Directive Principle)Promote international peace and security; keep just and honourable relations between nations; foster respect for international law and treaty obligations; encourage settlement of disputes by arbitrationBridge-building, UN peacekeeping, dialogue on disputes
Article 73Union executive power covers matters on which Parliament can legislate and rights under any treaty or agreementGovernment negotiates, signs and ratifies treaties
Article 246 with Union List Entries 10–21Foreign affairs (10); diplomatic, consular and trade representation (11); UN (12); international conferences (13); treaties (14); war and peace (15); foreign jurisdiction (16); citizenship, naturalisation and aliens (17); extradition (18); admission, emigration, expulsion, passports and visas (19); pilgrimages abroad (20); piracy and offences against the law of nations (21)Only Parliament legislates on external affairs
Article 253Parliament may make laws for all or part of India to implement any treaty or international decision, even on State List subjectsAir Act (1981) and Environment (Protection) Act (1986) after the Stockholm Conference (1972)

Constraints on Strategic Autonomy

Autonomy is debated because every choice carries a price: partners expect support in crises, and dependence on others for arms, energy and markets limits how freely India can act.

  1. Defence dependence: a large stock of Russian-origin platforms limits how sharply India can criticise Moscow, even as Russia draws closer to China; e.g. Su-30MKI fleets and S-400 squadrons depend on Russian spares; five more S-400 systems cleared (March 2026).
  2. Costs with the West: neutrality on Ukraine and purchases of Russian oil invited US pressure, testing how far autonomy can be pressed; e.g. US tariffs on India reached 50% in August 2025, including a 25% Russian-oil duty, before an 18% framework in February 2026 (see Ch 7, Topic 1).
  3. Presence over outcomes: critics argue that sitting in every grouping can yield statements rather than results when members pull in different directions; e.g. no Quad Leaders’ Summit since Wilmington (September 2024); the India-hosted summit still has no date.

Way Forward for India

  1. Diversify dependencies: spread arms, energy and technology sources and build capacity at home so that no partner holds a veto over India’s choices; e.g. India–EU FTA concluded on 27 January 2026; EU–India goods trade was EUR 118 billion in 2025 (European Commission).
  2. Results-based multi-alignment: judge each grouping by what it delivers in supply chains, finance and technology, not by summit attendance; e.g. Quad critical minerals framework issued at the foreign ministers’ meeting in New Delhi (May 2026).
  3. Parliamentary oversight: a law under Union List Entry 14 on placing major treaties before Parliament would add transparency and national consensus; e.g. the UK lays treaties before Parliament under the Constitutional Reform and Governance Act, 2010.
Way forward for India’s strategic autonomy
Fig. 1.3 Way forward for India’s strategic autonomy

India should keep multi-alignment tied to clear national goals, so that strategic autonomy brings security, technology and markets rather than presence alone.

Based on NCERT, Standard Books references, Keywords from Syllabus and Previous Year question Papers

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International RelationsChapter 01 · Topic 2
Topic 2

India’s Global Role: Voice of the Global South, Soft Power and the Claim to World Leadership

Multi-alignment gives India room to claim a global role as a bridge between the developed North and the developing Global South, rather than as the head of a bloc. In February 2026 New Delhi hosted the AI Impact Summit, the first such summit in a Global South country.

Voice of the Global South

  1. Vishwa Bandhu: India presents itself as Vishwa Mitra, a friend and bridge to all countries, rather than as the leader of a bloc; e.g. G20 theme of 2023: Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, “One Earth, One Family, One Future”.
  2. VOGS summits: India convened three Voice of the Global South summits to carry developing-country concerns into the G20 and beyond; e.g. 12–13 January 2023 (125 countries), 17 November 2023 and 17 August 2024 (123 countries); AU made a permanent G20 member under India’s presidency, September 2023 (see Ch 5, Topic 4).
  3. Shared agenda: India presses for climate finance, debt relief, fair trade rules, digital public infrastructure and reform of the UNSC, IMF and World Bank; e.g. Global DPI Repository and a Social Impact Fund with an initial Indian pledge of USD 25 million (G20, November 2023).
  4. Commonwealth platform: the 56-member Commonwealth links India with small African, Caribbean and Pacific states that share its development concerns; e.g. India a member since 1947; Heads of Government Meetings (CHOGM); Ahmedabad will host the centenary 2030 Commonwealth Games.
India’s Global South outreach, soft power and security roles
Fig. 1.4 India’s Global South outreach, soft power and security roles

Soft Power as a Doctrine: Its Instruments

  1. Culture and diaspora: yoga, Ayurveda, Bollywood, classical arts and the world’s largest diaspora carry India’s culture abroad (see Topic 3); e.g. UNGA declared 21 June the International Day of Yoga (December 2014).
  2. Capacity building: ITEC training and ICCR scholarships build lasting goodwill among officials, officers and students of partner countries; e.g. ITEC, begun on 15 September 1964, now covers over 161 partner countries.
  3. Health and relief: vaccines and quick disaster relief present India as a reliable first responder (see Topic 5); e.g. Vaccine Maitri from January 2021, starting with neighbours such as Bhutan and the Maldives.
  4. Buddhist and spiritual links: shared Buddhist heritage and Indian temples abroad connect India with Asian and Gulf societies; e.g. Buddhist diplomacy with Sri Lanka, Mongolia, Japan and Vietnam; BAPS Hindu temple, Abu Dhabi (February 2024).
  5. Digital public goods: India offers UPI and other digital public infrastructure as low-cost, open models for developing countries (see Ch 7, Topic 3); e.g. UPI live in nine countries including the UAE, France and Mauritius, Cambodia the latest (June 2026); DPI MoUs with 23 nations.

Is India Ready to Lead? Pillars of the Claim

World leadership is the ability to set global agendas and carry other states along; India’s claim rests on four pillars.

  1. Economic and demographic weight: India is the most populous country and among the largest economies, though its rank shifts with the exchange rate; e.g. IMF (April 2026): sixth by nominal GDP at about USD 4.15 trillion in 2026, ahead of Japan from 2027; the government cited fourth place in 2025.
  2. Bridge position: India sits in Western-led and non-Western groupings alike, so it can carry messages across divides; e.g. member of both the Quad and BRICS; BRICS chair in 2026, with President Xi at the New Delhi summit (September 2026); G7 outreach at Evian (June 2026).
  3. Institution builder: India creates new international bodies on climate and disaster resilience instead of only joining existing ones; e.g. International Solar Alliance (2015, with France; 120+ member and signatory countries) and the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI, 2019).
  4. Security provider: the Navy acts as a first responder and net security provider in the Indian Ocean under SAGAR and MAHASAGAR; e.g. anti-piracy patrols in the Gulf of Aden since 2008; MAHASAGAR announced in Mauritius (March 2025; see Ch 5, Topic 3).
Pillars of India’s claim to world leadership
Fig. 1.5 Pillars of India’s claim to world leadership

Constraints on the Leadership Claim

The claim is debated because India’s influence runs ahead of its material power: low incomes, limited military reach and a troubled neighbourhood restrict what it can deliver.

  1. Low per-capita income: average incomes remain low, so India still needs foreign capital and technology more than it can supply them; e.g. IMF (April 2026): GDP per capita about USD 2,813 in 2026.
  2. Soft power without hard power: goodwill projects abroad proved fragile where India lacked the hard power to protect them; e.g. over USD 3 billion of Afghan projects (2002–2021), such as the Parliament building and Salma Dam, stalled after August 2021; Kabul mission upgraded to an embassy (October 2025).
  3. Contested neighbourhood: unsettled ties with Pakistan and China and political swings in smaller neighbours absorb diplomatic energy (see Ch 2); e.g. tensions on the LAC with China; new governments in Bangladesh (February 2026) and Nepal (March 2026).
  4. Trade caution: exports remain small relative to the economy and India avoids some large trade blocs, limiting its economic pull; e.g. India stayed out of RCEP (November 2019); US tariff pressure in 2025–26.
  5. Uneven image: global indices still rank India’s soft power well below what its size and culture suggest; e.g. Brand Finance Global Soft Power Index: 30th in 2025, 32nd in 2026.
“India is ready for world leadership”: strengths and constraints
Fig. 1.6 “India is ready for world leadership”: strengths and constraints

Way Forward for India

  1. Build hard power: faster growth, manufacturing depth and defence modernisation must back India’s moral voice in world affairs; e.g. IMF projects India’s GDP at about USD 6.17 trillion by 2030.
  2. Reform global institutions: push UNSC, IMF quota and development bank reform together with the African Union and other Global South partners; e.g. the G20 New Delhi Declaration (2023) backed completing the IMF’s 16th quota review (see Ch 6, Topic 5).
  3. Deliver public goods: scale up DPI, solar and disaster-resilience projects so that partners see tangible results, not slogans; e.g. the New Delhi Declaration of the AI Impact Summit had 91 signatories by 24 February 2026.

India is ready to lead on Global South causes and public goods; it will be ready for wider leadership as growth, hard power and a calm neighbourhood catch up with its voice.

Based on NCERT, Standard Books references, Keywords from Syllabus and Previous Year question Papers

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