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UPPCS Mains
2026 Edition
General Studies Paper I
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Art & Culture

English Medium
11
Chapters
50
Topics
117
Figures & Maps
48
Tables
What's Inside
  1. 01Architecture I: Prehistoric to Gupta
  2. 02Architecture II: Temple Architecture
  3. 03Architecture III: Indo-Islamic, Colonial and Modern
  4. 04Indian Sculpture
  5. 05Indian Painting
  6. 06Performing Arts: Music, Dance, Theatre and Martial Arts
  7. 07Indian Literature: Ancient to Modern
  8. 08Epigraphy, Numismatics and Pottery
  9. 09Science and Technology in Ancient and Medieval India
  10. 10Indian Philosophy and Religious Movements
  11. 11Foreign Travellers and Education in Ancient India
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Art & Culture
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Art & Culture
UPPCS Mains · Smart Notes

Contents

Art & Culture · General Studies Paper I
  1. 01Architecture I: Prehistoric to Gupta5 topics
    1. 1.1Harappan and Pre-Mauryan Architecture
    2. 1.2Mauryan Architecture
    3. 1.3Post-Mauryan Architecture: Stupas, Chaityas, Viharas
    4. 1.4Cave and Rock-Cut Architecture
    5. 1.5Gupta Age: Golden Age of Art, Science and Early Temples
  2. 02Architecture II: Temple Architecture4 topics
    1. 2.1Temple Basics and the Nagara Style (with Sub-schools)
    2. 2.2Dravida Style: Pallava, Chola and Nayaka
    3. 2.3Vesara, Hoysala and Vijayanagara
    4. 2.4Eastern and Regional Temple Schools (Pala, Sena, Odisha, Others)
  3. 03Architecture III: Indo-Islamic, Colonial and Modern5 topics
    1. 3.1Indo-Islamic Features and Sultanate Architecture
    2. 3.2Mughal Architecture
    3. 3.3Provincial, Rajput and Sikh Architecture
    4. 3.4Colonial, Neo-Roman and Indo-Saracenic Architecture
    5. 3.5Modern and Post-Independence Architecture
  4. 04Indian Sculpture4 topics
    1. 4.1Harappan and Mauryan Sculpture
    2. 4.2Buddhist and Jain Sculpture: Gandhara, Mathura, Amaravati
    3. 4.3Gupta Sculpture
    4. 4.4Early Medieval Sculpture: Pallava, Rashtrakuta, Chola (Nataraja), Hoysala, Pala
  5. 05Indian Painting6 topics
    1. 5.1Prehistoric and Mural Painting: Bhimbetka, Ajanta, Bagh, Badami, Sittanavasal
    2. 5.2South Indian Murals and Traditions: Pallava–Chola, Vijayanagara–Nayaka, Tanjore, Mysore
    3. 5.3Early Miniatures: Pala, Jain (Apabhramsa) and Sultanate
    4. 5.4Mughal Miniature Painting
    5. 5.5Rajput, Pahari and Ragamala Painting
    6. 5.6Modern and Folk Painting
  6. 06Performing Arts: Music, Dance, Theatre and Martial Arts3 topics
    1. 6.1Indian Music: Hindustani and Carnatic
    2. 6.2Classical Dances of India (with Folk Comparison)
    3. 6.3Theatre, Modern Dance and Martial Arts
  7. 07Indian Literature: Ancient to Modern5 topics
    1. 7.1Vedic and Epic Literature
    2. 7.2Buddhist, Jain and Sangam Literature (Mauryan–Post-Mauryan)
    3. 7.3Gupta and Early Medieval Literature
    4. 7.4Sultanate and Mughal Literature
    5. 7.5Modern Indian Literature
  8. 08Epigraphy, Numismatics and Pottery6 topics
    1. 8.1Inscriptions: Types, Important Records and Significance
    2. 8.2Ashokan Edicts: Types, Sites and Scripts
    3. 8.3Ashokan Edicts: Features and Dhamma
    4. 8.4Ancient Coinage: Punch-Marked to Gupta
    5. 8.5Early Medieval and Medieval Coinage
    6. 8.6Pottery Traditions: Neolithic to Mughal
  9. 09Science and Technology in Ancient and Medieval India5 topics
    1. 9.1Mathematics and Astronomy
    2. 9.2Medicine and Chemistry: Ayurveda, Rasashastra, Unani
    3. 9.3Metallurgy, Engineering and Military Technology
    4. 9.4Agriculture, Irrigation, Textiles and Paper
    5. 9.5Shipbuilding and Navigation
  10. 10Indian Philosophy and Religious Movements4 topics
    1. 10.1Indian Philosophy: Concepts and Orthodox (Astika) Schools
    2. 10.2Heterodox (Nastika) Schools and Cultural Significance
    3. 10.3Bhakti Movement
    4. 10.4Sufi Movement (with Bhakti–Sufi Comparison)
  11. 11Foreign Travellers and Education in Ancient India3 topics
    1. 11.1Foreign Travellers: Ancient and Medieval Accounts
    2. 11.2Gurukul and the Vedic Education System
    3. 11.3Ancient Universities: Takshashila, Nalanda, Vikramshila, Odantapuri and others
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Art & CultureChapter 01 · Topic 1
Chapter 01

Architecture I: Prehistoric to Gupta

Art & Culture · 5 topics
Topic 1

Harappan and Pre-Mauryan Architecture

Chapter Overview

This chapter covers Indian architecture up to the Gupta age. It starts with painted rock shelters and Harappan cities, then the timber-and-mud Vedic villages. It goes on to the polished stone of the Mauryas, the stupas and chaitya–vihara caves of later dynasties, the large rock-cut complexes and the first structural temples.

The order follows material and patron. Harappans built in brick and Vedic people in wood. The Mauryan state began to build in stone. Kings, merchants and guilds then paid for stupas and caves. The Guptas built free-standing temples, and their age is called ‘golden’ for its art, science and literature.

Topic Flow
  1. 1Harappan and Pre-Mauryan Architecture
  2. timber turned to stone by
  3. 2Mauryan Architecture
  4. elaborated by regional dynasties in
  5. 3Post-Mauryan Stupas, Chaityas, Viharas
  6. carved into cliffs as
  7. 4Cave and Rock-Cut Architecture
  8. culminating in
  9. 5Gupta Age: Art, Science and Early Temples

The earliest Indian building remains are the painted Mesolithic shelters of Bhimbetka, the planned cities of the Harappan Civilisation (c. 2600–1900 BCE) and the timber-and-mud villages of the Vedic age. Dholavira became India’s 40th UNESCO World Heritage Site in July 2021.

Features of Harappan Town Planning

  1. Grid planning: main streets ran north–south and east–west, crossing at right angles and dividing the city into rectangular blocks wide enough for carts; e.g. Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan.
  2. Citadel and lower town: a raised, walled citadel held public buildings while the lower town housed people; brick walls guarded against floods and raids; e.g. Harappa, Mohenjo-daro; three-part plan at Dholavira.
  3. Drainage and sanitation: house drains fed covered brick street drains with manholes and cesspits, showing civic sense and municipal control; e.g. Mohenjo-daro.
  4. Standard bricks and houses: burnt and mud bricks of a uniform 1:2:4 ratio, set in mud or gypsum mortar, built courtyard houses with wells and bathrooms; e.g. uniform bricks from Harappa to Lothal.
  5. Public buildings: large civic structures point to organised authority, storage of surplus and ritual bathing; e.g. Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro); granaries at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and Kalibangan.
  6. Water and ports: reservoirs, wells and a tidal dock show adaptation to dry land and to sea trade; e.g. reservoirs at Dholavira; dockyard at Lothal.
Significance of Harappan urban architecture
Fig. 1.1 Significance of Harappan urban architecture

Rock Shelters and Key Harappan Sites

  1. Bhimbetka rock shelters: Mesolithic shelters carry paintings (pictographs) and engravings (petroglyphs) of hunting, dancing and animals; they are the first stage of India’s rock-cut tradition; e.g. Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh (UNESCO 2003).
  2. Social life and burials: Mesolithic art and graves record childbirth, child-rearing, burial rites and a love of nature and animals; e.g. Morhana Pahar art and Sarai Nahar Rai burials (UP); Bagor (Rajasthan); Valsana (Gujarat).
  3. Regional Harappan sites: later-found sites show local variety in planning, burial practice and function beyond the two big cities; e.g. Dholavira (Gujarat); Lothal dock; Rakhigarhi pit burials (Haryana); coffin burial at Harappa.
Prehistoric, Harappan and Vedic sites named in this topic
Fig. 1.2 Prehistoric, Harappan and Vedic sites named in this topic

Vedic and Later Vedic Villages

  1. Perishable villages: Vedic settlements were rural and non-monumental, of wood, bamboo, thatch and mud, with round or square huts and fortified settlements (pur); e.g. Painted Grey Ware sites such as Hastinapur.
  2. Planned village and altars: villages were rectangular, facing four directions, with two cross roads, four gateways and a ritual path; texts mention fire altars and painted halls; e.g. altar geometry of the Shulba Sutras.
  3. Seeds of later forms: the ritual path, gateways and curved timber roofs foreshadow the stupa railing, torana and horseshoe chaitya arch; megalithic tombs appear in the south; e.g. rock-cut tombs at Mennapuram and Kozhikode (Malabar, Kerala).

Harappan and Vedic Building Compared

Table 1.1
AspectHarappanVedic
NatureUrban, planned citiesRural villages, non-monumental
MaterialBurnt and mud bricks (1:2:4)Wood, bamboo, thatch, mud
PlanningGrid, citadel, covered drainsFour-gated village, ritual path
Public structuresGreat Bath, granaries, dockyardFire altars, assembly halls
LegacyCivic planning and sanitationTorana, pradakshina, chaitya arch

Open Questions about Harappan Buildings

The Harappan script is still undeciphered. The use of a building is judged only from its plan, so some labels are disputed.

  1. Granary or hall?: the so-called granaries lack clear grain remains, so some scholars read them as warehouses or assembly halls; e.g. Great Granary, Harappa.
  2. Continuity or break?: Harappan brick urbanism did not pass directly to the Vedic age; cities returned only with the Second Urbanisation around the 6th century BCE; e.g. Painted Grey Ware villages before Mahajanapada towns.

Conservation and Present Relevance

  1. World Heritage status: UNESCO listing brings global attention and stricter protection to prehistoric and Harappan sites; e.g. Bhimbetka (2003); Dholavira (July 2021).
  2. Iconic sites and lessons: Harappan sites are being developed as heritage hubs, and their drainage and water harvesting inform modern urban planning; e.g. Rakhigarhi and Dholavira among five iconic sites (Budget 2020); maritime heritage complex at Lothal.

Harappan drainage and water storage still hold lessons, so these sites should be protected and studied for modern town planning.

Based on NCERT, Standard Books references, Keywords from Syllabus and Previous Year question Papers

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Art & CultureChapter 01 · Topic 2
Topic 2

Mauryan Architecture

Under the Mauryas (c. 322–185 BCE), and above all under Ashoka, the state began to build in monumental stone instead of timber. The work falls into court art and popular art. The Sarnath Lion Capital became the National Emblem of India on 26 January 1950.

Court Art: Palaces and Pillars

  1. Palace of Pataliputra: Chandragupta’s timber palace, praised by Megasthenes as a great structure, stood within wooden walls with towers and gates; e.g. Pataliputra (Patna), described in Indica.
  2. Pillared hall: a stone-pillared assembly hall, often compared with Achaemenid Persepolis, marks the first large use of stone columns; e.g. 80-pillared hall at Kumrahar, Patna.
  3. Monolithic pillars: freestanding single shafts of Chunar sandstone, about 40 feet high, carried Ashoka’s Dhamma across the empire; e.g. Lauriya Nandangarh (Bihar); Allahabad–Kaushambi pillar (UP).
  4. Four-part design: each pillar had a tapering shaft, an inverted-lotus (bell) capital, an abacus and a crowning animal; e.g. Rampurva bull and lion (Bihar); Sankisa elephant.
  5. Mauryan polish: a mirror-like gloss on sandstone, like that of Northern Black Polished Ware, is the chief mark of Mauryan work; e.g. Sarnath Lion Capital; Barabar cave walls.
  6. Edicts and scripts: pillar and rock edicts spread Dhamma in Prakrit in Brahmi script, with Kharosthi in the north-west and Greek and Aramaic in Afghanistan; e.g. Kandahar bilingual edict; Dhauli rock edict (Odisha).
Parts of an Ashokan pillar, from base to crown
Fig. 1.3 Parts of an Ashokan pillar, from base to crown

Stupas, Caves and Popular Sculpture

  1. Relic stupas: Buddhist tradition credits Ashoka with building stupas over the Buddha’s relics across the empire, in brick with plaster; e.g. brick core of the Great Stupa, Sanchi; Piprahwa (UP); Bairat (Rajasthan); Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Ramagrama.
  2. Parts of a stupa: a hemispherical anda on a medhi base, topped by harmika and chhatra, with a vedika railing and pradakshina path; e.g. toranas added later at Sanchi and Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh).
  3. Barabar caves: the earliest rock-cut caves, cut into hard granite and gifted to Ajivika monks, have mirror-polished walls and simple halls; e.g. Sudama cave with Ashoka’s dedication; Karna Chaupar, Vishwamitra (Bihar).
  4. Wood in stone: the Lomas Rishi doorway copies a timber hut with a curved chaitya arch and an elephant frieze; e.g. Lomas Rishi cave; Nagarjuni caves (Gopi, Vahiyaka, Vadathika) given by Dasharatha.
  5. Yaksha–Yakshi figures: large polished statues of folk deities show a vigorous popular art beside the court art; e.g. Didarganj Yakshi (Patna); Parkham Yaksha (Mathura).
  6. Rock-cut animal: animal sculpture carved directly from living rock marked important edict sites and announced the Buddhist message; e.g. forepart of an elephant at Dhauli, Odisha.
Pillars, stupas, caves and palace sites of the Mauryan age
Fig. 1.4 Pillars, stupas, caves and palace sites of the Mauryan age

Stone Technology and Its Importance

  1. Stone technology: quarrying, moving and polishing monoliths hundreds of kilometres from Chunar show advanced engineering and state organisation; e.g. pillars taken to Lauriya and Rampurva in Bihar.
  2. State patronage: the empire used architecture to project royal authority and a moral policy of Dhamma; e.g. Dhamma pillars on royal routes and pilgrim places.
  3. Spread of Buddhism: stupas and inscribed pillars at sacred places helped carry Buddhism across India; e.g. Sarnath; Lumbini (Rummindei) pillar, Nepal.
  4. Foundation for later art: stupa, cave and pillar forms were carried forward by the Shungas, Satavahanas and Guptas; e.g. Sanchi gateways; Karla chaitya; Gupta iron pillar.
Significance of Mauryan architecture
Fig. 1.5 Significance of Mauryan architecture

Literary Sources on Mauryan Architecture

Table 1.2
SourceAuthorArchitectural information
ArthashastraKautilya (Chanakya)Fortified cities, gates, roads, drainage, administrative buildings
IndicaMegasthenesPataliputra’s wooden walls, towers, palaces and halls
Ashokan edictsAshokaPillars, stupas, caves, roads, wells, rest houses
Mahavamsa, DipavamsaSri Lankan Buddhist chroniclesStupas and viharas of Ashoka
Ashokavadana, DivyavadanaBuddhist textsRelic stupas, pillars, monasteries
KalpasutraJain textCave dwellings of monks
PuranasVariousPataliputra; royal patronage of building
MahabhashyaPatanjaliTowns, forts and public buildings
Arrian, StraboGreek writersCities, palaces and fortified centres

Persian Borrowing or Indian Invention?

Polished stone and bell-shaped capitals look like those of Achaemenid Persia, so scholars ask how much was borrowed. Most evidence points to adaptation, not copying.

  1. Persian: bell capital and polish: the inverted-lotus capital and glossy finish recall the columns of Persepolis, suggesting Persian craftsmen or models; e.g. Rampurva and Sarnath capitals.
  2. Persian: palace plan: the many-pillared hall at the capital mirrors the plan of the Achaemenid royal audience hall (apadana); e.g. Kumrahar hall, Patna.
  3. Indigenous: freestanding monoliths: Mauryan pillars stand alone as single shafts without a base, unlike the jointed, fluted Persian columns that held up roofs; e.g. Lauriya Nandangarh pillar.
  4. Indigenous: motifs and forms: native animals, stupas, rock-cut caves and yaksha cults have no Persian parallel; e.g. Rampurva bull; Barabar caves.

Conservation and Present Relevance

  1. National symbols: Mauryan motifs form part of India’s state identity and appear on the national emblem, flag and currency; e.g. Sarnath Lion Capital as National Emblem (26 January 1950); Dharma Chakra on the national flag.
  2. World Heritage: Buddhist sites first built up under Ashoka are now inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage list; e.g. Sanchi (1989); Sarnath (July 2026).
  3. Conservation schemes: ASI protects pillars and caves while national schemes document sites and improve visitor amenities; e.g. National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities (2007); Adopt a Heritage 2.0 (2023).

Mauryan pillars and caves are India’s first stone monuments, and they need steady ASI care and better site interpretation for visitors.

Based on NCERT, Standard Books references, Keywords from Syllabus and Previous Year question Papers

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